Questions and Answers from the Depths: Jewish Theology and Martyrdom in the Kovno Ghetto
As the posek, or decisor, of the Kovno ghetto, Rabbi Ephraim Oshry had the task of searching the vast breadth of Jewish halakhic (legal) literature for answers to the difficult questions that ghetto residents sent him. Rabbi Oshry wrote down these answers, and published them after the war. Entitled She’eilot Uteshuvot MiMaamakim — “Questions and Answers from the Depths,” a reference to psalms 130:1 — this work is an example of traditional Jewish responsa literature, with each question followed by an extensive description of the different factors at play in each case, after which Rabbi Oshry renders a verdict. These answers offer a fascinating insight into the religious observance of Orthodox Jews in the ghetto. Many of the questions deal with the complex relationship between Judaism and Christianity, and analyzing Rabbi Oshry’s answers paints an interesting picture of the Jewish theological views towards non-Jews and martyrdom during the Holocaust.
One of the most important issues that Rabbi Oshry faced was that of Jews who, in some form or another, gave up their Judaism in order to be saved. For example, one survivor asked a question after the war about Jews who disguised themselves as priests (Book 5 Question 15). Should they be accepted with no repercussions? Or should they be required to do some sort of repentance (Rabbi Oshry hints at a symbolic conversion back to Judaism)? In his answer, Rabbi Oshry describes how posing as a priest could be religiously problematic: Jewish law requires that if one is faced with the choice between idolatry and death, one must choose death (the issue of whether or not Chrisitianity is considered idolatry under Jewish law is complex, but Rabbi Oshry believes that Christianity does fall under the category of idolatry). However, one is never punished for not being a martyr in that situation. Furthermore, since the subjects of this question became priests in secret, as opposed to a public renunciation of their faith, Rabbi Oshry said that they were not committing a public desecration of God’s name. Most importantly, Rabbi Oshry was concerned that “if we act strictly and are not leniently in accepting them… they will be totally distanced from Israel [Judaism] and drawn to them [Christianity].” (Oshry Book 5 page 138). Rabbi Oshry then cites a passage from the Talmud, where, when dealing with a Jew who sold himself to a pagan temple and became a priest there, it is suggested to “throw a rock after the fallen,” i.e. dismiss him as beyond redemption (Kiddushin 20b). Instead, the Talmud cites a verse that this Jew must be redeemed — so too, writes Rabbi Oshry, one should not throw a rock after the fallen, and “it is upon us to do everything to draw them in” (Oshry Book 5 page 139). Thus, his final decision was that these Jews were to be treated as normal Jews in all respects, although if they wished to repent in some fashion it would be praiseworthy.
Rabbi Oshry’s answer to this tricky question balances many competing values. On one hand is kiddush hashem, or the sanctification of God’s name that Jews are commanded to perform. By posing as priests, there is concern that these Jews were desecrating the name of God by appearing to worship idolatry. On the other hand, Rabbi Oshry does not want to push Jews away from Judaism, and in the end he rules leniently. Interestingly, both sides of this debate share a common theme: keeping Jews and Christians separate. This goal makes sense in the context of the Holocaust: Rabbi Oshry’s primary goal is to save Judaism by keeping as many people Jewish as he can.
These same themes are seen in a different answer given by Rabbi Oshry. A certain ghetto resident, who had been sent there from Germany, had a very non-Jewish sounding name, and he sought to add the letters “R.C.” to his passport, which indicated that the holder was Roman Catholic, in order to leave the ghetto. The man was concerned that using such a passport would be tantamount to rejecting God and accepting idolatry, so he asked Rabbi Oshry if this was permissible (Book 5 Question 3). After a long discussion of what exactly constitutes apostasy, Rabbi Oshry responded that this was permissible, since he was not pretending to be a Jew rejecting God, rather, he was pretending to be a Roman Catholic from birth. Furthermore, the letters “R.C.” are not considered a full-fledged declaration of faith, since the acronym can technically be read to mean many things. Indeed, this decision reflects the same value of preserving Jewish life, while at the same time maintaining a distinction between Jews and Christians. Additionally, the fact that this man even thought to ask this question, instead of simply going ahead with this plan, shows how concerned some ghetto residents were about Chillul Hashem, the desecration of God’s name that pretending to be non-Jewish could potentially cause. Even in a situation where the man’s life was at risk — if he had stayed in the ghetto he almost certainly would have perished — he did not want to save himself if doing so meant a rejection of God and Judaism.
Indeed, even in cases where it would have been acceptable to escape, Rabbi Oshry praised those who did choose to martyr themselves. For example, Book 2 Question 2 is about a young boy whose family was killed in front of him during the pogrom of June 1941. The boy was saved by the family’s Christian maid, who gave him to a church when it became dangerous to take care of him. However, the boy could not bear to live in this manner, and therefore he “returned to the Kovno ghetto to live with his Jewish brothers who were placed in troubles and captivity, and to place his lot together with them, even if he would go to the gates of death with the Jews of the ghetto… and he returned to God with all of his heart and soul, and it was a great pain for his soul [that he had lived as a Christian]” (Oshry Book 2 Page 17). The question was about whether the boy could resume certain ritual duties as a Kohen (priest), and, like in similar cases discussed earlier, Rabbi Oshry permitted him to do so.
Additionally, Rabbi Oshry praises this boy extensively for his actions, saying, “this boy kept with his life the greatest commandment,… the sanctification of God’s name, when he ran away from the gentiles and joined with his suffering brothers, who were besieged and held captive by the walls of the ghetto” (Oshry Book 2 Page 24). Even though Rabbi Oshry was lenient towards those who did not sanctify God’s name with an act of martyrdom, he clearly thinks that doing so is praiseworthy. Indeed, Rabbi Oshry then describes how “on the day of the destruction of the ghetto in 5704 [the Hebrew Calendar year of 1944], then the lot of this holy boy was placed with the rest of the holy ones of Israel who perished on this day” (Oshry Book 2 Page 24). The fact that this boy chose to die as a Jew rather than live as a Christian may seem rather fanatical, but it reveals the importance to the Jews of the ghetto of keeping Judaism distinct. In a sense, the actions of these martyrs preserve Judaism, even though it may be at the cost of individual Jews.
Furthermore, despite ruling leniently in many of these cases and permitting people to pass as Christians, Rabbi Oshry did rule strictly sometimes. For example, in spring of 1942 a resident asked Rabbi Oshry if it was permissible to buy a certificate that said that he had been baptised (Book 1 Question 15). Rabbi Oshry responded that this was forbidden — though in other cases there was an ambiguity about the way the Jew pretended to be a Christian, he considered such a certificate to be an act of apostasy. Specifically, he wrote that “there is only one meaning to a certificate of Christianity, that the owner of this certificate has left, God forbid, his God, and denied his people … this is certainly forbidden, and even if in his heart he fully believes in the Rock of Israel and its Redeemer [God], he is certainly commanded to sanctify the name of God … and he is commanded to let himself be killed and not let the gentiles think he has rejected, God forbid, the God of Israel.” (Oshry Book 1 Page 103). One of the main reasons for this prohibition is that Rabbi Oshry thinks that the man will die even if he escapes to the forest, so one cannot argue that buying the certificate will certainly save his life (Oshry Book 1 Page 103). Nonetheless, Rabbi Oshry clearly believes in the supreme value of Judaism — even in a case where someone’s life is at risk, they cannot publicly deny God in order to be saved. This decision seems harsh, but in a time when Judaism was in danger of extinction, Rabbi Oshry is trying to preserve the faith, even if it requires martyrdom.
The responsa of Rabbi Ephraim Oshry highlight many important themes in Orthodox Jewish theology that governed the lives of those in the Kovno Ghetto. First and foremost, Rabbi Oshry fights for the preservation of Judaism, primarily by keeping Judaism distinct from Christianity. Thus, in cases where people had survived the war by living as Christians, Rabbi Oshry welcomed them back into the community as full-fledged Jews, while at the same time acknowledging that their actions were religiously problematic and only permissible due to the immediate threat to their lives. The idea of Kiddush Hashem, the sanctification of God’s name — along with its converse, the desecration of God’s name — was very important to residents of the ghetto. In Judaism, the idea of holiness is intrinsically tied to separation — the hebrew word for holy, Kodesh, can also mean “separate” or “distinct” — and by remaining staunchly Jewish even in the face of death, the Jews of the ghetto carried out the ultimate sanctification of God’s name. Many ghetto residents made sure to ask the Rabbi before saving themselves to ensure that their plans were in line with this most important value, and some residents even chose to pay the ultimate price of martyrdom in order to keep Judaism holy. Rabbi Oshry ruled strictly in certain cases for this precise reason, insisting that people died as Jews instead of living by denying God. While the Nazis tried their hardest to eliminate Judaism, Rabbi Oshry and the Jews of the Kovno Ghetto strove to keep Judaism distinct and holy.